Buddhism, one of the world’s major religions, has a rich and complex history. Over time, it has evolved into various schools and traditions, each with its own unique practices, beliefs, and interpretations of the Buddha’s teachings. Among these, Theravada and Mahayana are the two most prominent branches. Understanding when and why these two traditions split is crucial for comprehending the diversity within Buddhism today. This article delves into the historical, doctrinal, and cultural factors that led to the division between Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism.
The Origins of Buddhism
The Life of the Buddha
Buddhism began with Siddhartha Gautama, known as the Buddha, who lived in the 5th to 4th century BCE in ancient India. After attaining enlightenment under the Bodhi tree, the Buddha spent the rest of his life teaching the Dharma, or the path to liberation from suffering. His teachings were initially passed down orally by his disciples.
The First Buddhist Council
After the Buddha’s passing (Parinirvana), his followers convened the First Buddhist Council to preserve his teachings. This council, held around 483 BCE, was attended by 500 senior monks who recited and compiled the Buddha’s sermons (Suttas) and the monastic rules (Vinaya). This marked the beginning of the Buddhist canon, known as the Tripitaka or “Three Baskets.”
The Early Buddhist Schools
The Formation of Different Schools
As Buddhism spread across India and beyond, different interpretations of the Buddha’s teachings emerged. By the 3rd century BCE, the Buddhist community had divided into several schools, each with its own version of the Tripitaka and doctrinal emphasis. These early schools are collectively known as the Nikaya Buddhism or the “Eighteen Schools.”
The Second Buddhist Council
The Second Buddhist Council, held around 383 BCE, was a significant event that highlighted the growing divisions within the Buddhist community. The council was convened to address disputes over monastic discipline, particularly the adherence to the Vinaya rules. The stricter, more conservative monks (Sthaviravadins) clashed with the more liberal, reformist monks (Mahasanghikas), leading to the first major schism in Buddhism.
The Emergence of Mahayana
The Rise of Mahayana Ideals
The Mahayana tradition, which means “Great Vehicle,” began to take shape around the 1st century BCE to the 1st century CE. Mahayana Buddhism emphasized the ideal of the Bodhisattva, a being who seeks enlightenment not only for themselves but for the benefit of all sentient beings. This was a significant shift from the earlier focus on individual liberation (Arhatship) emphasized by the Nikaya schools.
The Mahayana Sutras
Mahayana Buddhism introduced a new set of scriptures known as the Mahayana Sutras. These texts, which include the Lotus Sutra, the Heart Sutra, and the Diamond Sutra, presented new doctrines and practices that were not found in the earlier Tripitaka. The Mahayana Sutras claimed to represent the Buddha’s higher teachings, which were said to have been hidden until the time was right for their revelation.
The Role of the Laity
Another distinguishing feature of Mahayana Buddhism was its greater inclusivity of the laity. While the early Buddhist schools were primarily monastic, Mahayana Buddhism encouraged lay practitioners to actively participate in the path to enlightenment. This democratization of Buddhist practice helped Mahayana gain widespread popularity.
Theravada: The Tradition of the Elders
The Preservation of the Early Teachings
Theravada, which means “Teaching of the Elders,” is considered the most conservative branch of Buddhism. It traces its lineage back to the Sthaviravadins, one of the early Buddhist schools that emerged after the Second Buddhist Council. Theravada Buddhism is primarily based on the Pali Canon, the oldest and most complete collection of the Buddha’s teachings.
The Spread of Theravada
Theravada Buddhism became the dominant form of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, where it was introduced in the 3rd century BCE by the missionary monk Mahinda, the son of Emperor Ashoka. From Sri Lanka, Theravada spread to other parts of Southeast Asia, including Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos. Theravada monks played a crucial role in preserving the Pali Canon and maintaining the monastic discipline.
Theravada Doctrine and Practice
Theravada Buddhism emphasizes the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path, and the practice of meditation (Vipassana) as the means to achieve Arhatship, or liberation from the cycle of birth and death (Samsara). Theravada monks follow a strict monastic code, and the tradition places a strong emphasis on the study and recitation of the Pali scriptures.
The Great Schism: Theravada vs. Mahayana
The Timeline of the Split
The exact timeline of the split between Theravada and Mahayana is a matter of scholarly debate. However, it is generally agreed that the division began to take shape around the 1st century BCE to the 1st century CE, with Mahayana emerging as a distinct tradition by the 2nd century CE. The split was not a sudden event but a gradual process influenced by doctrinal, cultural, and geographical factors.
Doctrinal Differences
One of the key doctrinal differences between Theravada and Mahayana is their understanding of the Buddha and the path to enlightenment. Theravada focuses on the historical Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama, and his teachings as preserved in the Pali Canon. Mahayana, on the other hand, introduces the concept of multiple Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, as well as the idea of the Buddha-nature, the inherent potential for enlightenment within all beings.
The Role of the Bodhisattva
The Bodhisattva ideal is central to Mahayana Buddhism but is less emphasized in Theravada. In Mahayana, the Bodhisattva is seen as a compassionate being who postpones their own enlightenment to help others achieve liberation. In contrast, Theravada focuses on the Arhat, an individual who attains enlightenment through their own efforts and practice.
The Concept of Emptiness (Sunyata)
Mahayana Buddhism places a strong emphasis on the concept of Sunyata, or emptiness, which refers to the idea that all phenomena are devoid of inherent existence. This doctrine is elaborated in the Mahayana Sutras, particularly in the Prajnaparamita literature. Theravada, while acknowledging the impermanent and non-self nature of phenomena, does not emphasize Sunyata to the same extent.
The Use of Sanskrit vs. Pali
Another significant difference between the two traditions is the language of their scriptures. Theravada Buddhism uses Pali, a Middle Indo-Aryan language, for its canonical texts. Mahayana Buddhism, on the other hand, primarily uses Sanskrit, a classical language of India. This linguistic difference reflects the broader cultural and regional variations between the two traditions.
The Cultural and Geographical Factors
The Spread of Buddhism in India
The spread of Buddhism across different regions of India also contributed to the divergence between Theravada and Mahayana. Theravada was more prevalent in the southern regions, particularly in Sri Lanka, while Mahayana gained prominence in the northern and northwestern parts of India, including areas like Gandhara and Kashmir.
The Influence of Local Cultures
As Buddhism spread beyond India, it encountered and adapted to various local cultures and traditions. In regions where Mahayana took root, such as China, Tibet, and Japan, it incorporated elements of local religions and philosophies, leading to the development of distinct Mahayana schools like Zen, Pure Land, and Tibetan Buddhism. Theravada, on the other hand, remained more conservative and retained its original form in Southeast Asia.
The Role of Monastic Universities
The establishment of monastic universities, such as Nalanda and Vikramashila, played a crucial role in the development and dissemination of Mahayana Buddhism. These institutions were centers of learning where monks from different regions could study and debate Buddhist philosophy. Theravada, while also having its own centers of learning, did not have the same level of institutional support as Mahayana.
The Impact of the Split on Buddhist Practice
Theravada Monasticism
Theravada Buddhism has maintained a strong emphasis on monasticism, with monks playing a central role in the preservation and transmission of the Dharma. The monastic community (Sangha) is seen as essential for the practice and propagation of Buddhism, and laypeople support the monks through alms and other forms of merit-making.
Mahayana Lay Practice
In contrast, Mahayana Buddhism has a more inclusive approach, with a greater emphasis on lay practice. While monasticism is still important in Mahayana, lay practitioners are encouraged to engage in practices such as meditation, chanting, and the recitation of sutras. This has made Mahayana more accessible to a broader audience.
The Role of Rituals and Devotion
Mahayana Buddhism is known for its rich ritualistic and devotional practices, including the veneration of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, the use of mantras, and the performance of elaborate ceremonies. Theravada, while also having its own rituals, tends to be more austere and focused on meditation and ethical conduct.
The Modern Era: Theravada and Mahayana Today
Theravada in the Modern World
Today, Theravada Buddhism is the dominant form of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos. It has also gained a following in the West, particularly through the Vipassana meditation movement. Theravada continues to emphasize the study of the Pali Canon and the practice of meditation as the path to enlightenment.
Mahayana in the Modern World
Mahayana Buddhism is practiced in countries such as China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, and Tibet. It has also spread to the West, where Zen, Pure Land, and Tibetan Buddhism have become popular. Mahayana’s emphasis on compassion, the Bodhisattva ideal, and the accessibility of its practices have contributed to its widespread appeal.
The Dialogue Between Theravada and Mahayana
In recent years, there has been a growing dialogue between Theravada and Mahayana practitioners, particularly in the West. This has led to a greater appreciation of the diversity within Buddhism and a recognition of the common ground shared by the two traditions. While differences remain, there is a growing sense of unity and mutual respect among Buddhists of all traditions.
Conclusion
The split between Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism was a complex and gradual process influenced by doctrinal, cultural, and geographical factors. While Theravada emphasizes the preservation of the early teachings and the path to individual liberation, Mahayana introduces new doctrines and practices centered around the Bodhisattva ideal and the concept of emptiness. Despite their differences, both traditions share a common foundation in the teachings of the Buddha and continue to play a vital role in the spiritual lives of millions of people around the world. Understanding the historical context and the reasons behind the split helps us appreciate the rich diversity within Buddhism and the enduring relevance of the Buddha’s message.
